Molecular tests for detection of adenovirus a. Rhinovirus Rhinoviruses are positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses belonging to the family Picornaviridae. TABLE 8.
Molecular tests for detection of rhinovirus a. Enterovirus and Parechovirus Enterovirus and parechovirus are positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses belonging to the family Picornaviridae.
TABLE 9. Molecular tests for detection of enterovirus and parechovirus a. TABLE Molecular tests for detection of hMPV a. Molecular tests for detection of CoV a. RE, restriction endonuclease; pol , polymerase gene; N, nucleocapsid protein; S, spike protein. Molecular tests for detection of bocavirus a. Parvovirus Types 4 and 5 and Mimivirus Human parvovirus type 4 was first identified in in the plasma of a patient with acute viral syndrome following high-risk behavior for HIV-1 transmission Acknowledgments The secretarial assistance of Sarah White is greatly appreciated.
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Woolstenhulme, J. Langer, and K. Sensitivity of respiratory virus culture when screening with R-Mix fresh cells. Ebihara, T. Endo, H. Cross-reactivity of immune responses between SARS-CoV-2 and seasonal coronavirus has recently been reported [ 6 , 43 , 44 ]. As shown by Tso et al. However, it remains unclear whether the false-positive signals that we observed were the result of cross-reactive interactions with antibodies against other coronaviruses and whether the analysis result was influenced by endogenous factors associated with an autoimmune inflammatory process or by a combination of factors.
Antibodies against the nucleocapsid of SARS-CoV-2 are an attractive diagnostic marker, as they appear earlier than antibodies against the spike protein [ 46 ]. However, considering possible cross reactions, the ideal choice for the development of an immunoassay is simultaneous assessment of both the nucleocapsid and spike proteins.
Our findings on small cohorts indicate that the results of assays designed to detect antibodies against the SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein should be interpreted with caution, especially in patients with autoimmune diseases. Consistent with a recent study by Xu et al. Half of the samples Thus, a high prevalence of IgG antibodies against respiratory viruses, which usually cause mild illness with upper respiratory symptoms in nonimmunodeficient adults, was found in the studied cohort.
As the early symptoms of COVID are similar to those of other acute respiratory viral infections, a multiplex assay to detect IgM antibodies against a wide range of respiratory viruses may be helpful to reveal possible coinfections. Although IgM antibodies can be a sign of recent infection, IgM assays have limitations.
First, IgM antibodies are released only at specific time points. In addition, they have lower affinity for viral antigens than IgG antibodies. Thus, the performance of IgM assays can vary and demonstrate low sensitivity, as shown in different studies [ 49 ]. The specificity of a microarray assay for anti-type I IFN antibodies was previously confirmed for a slightly different assay [ 28 ].
Consistent with previous studies [ 39 ], similarly high levels of antibodies against type I IFNs were detected in the prepandemic and samples. The developed method is not intended to quantify the levels of autoantibodies, and the sample size is too small to draw a conclusion.
However, given the very low prevalence of APS-1 patients in the population, we can assume that this observed trend cannot be overlooked, and further research is needed. The formation of these circulating immune complexes can lead to decreased levels of autoantibodies. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
All specimens used in this study were anonymous samples that omitted personal information about the patients, particularly their name or address.
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Find articles by Dmitry Gryadunov. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Dec 7; Accepted Dec Associated Data Supplementary Materials virusess Materials and Methods 2. Clinical Data and Serum Samples 2.
Prepandemic Cohort The samples collected before May at the Endocrinology Research Centre, Ministry of Health of Russia, were included in the study as the negative control group. Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Results 3. Detection of Antibodies with the Microarray-Based Assay To determine antibody titers in serum, a protein hydrogel microarray with immobilized target antigens was designed Figure 1.
Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5. Figure 6. Figure 7. Discussion Multiplex analysis of SARS-CoVspecific antibodies is a very attractive idea; therefore, numerous microarrays have been developed to date [ 17 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. Click here for additional data file. Author Contributions E. Informed Consent Statement Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. References 1. Kaplonek P. Burrel S. Bastard P. Liu D. Encyclopedia of Virology.
Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Shrwani K. Sealy R. Lancet Microbe. Zedan H. A seroprevalence cross-sectional study in north-eastern France. Loos C. Ortega N. Kim D. JAMA J. Ruuskanen O. The first method consisted of single TaqMan quantitative real-time PCR assays in a well-plate format.
The second consisted of a multiplex PCR followed by primer extension and microarray hybridization in an integrated molecular diagnostic device, the Infiniti analyzer. These tests were used to identify viruses in nasopharyngeal aspirates obtained from children hospitalized for respiratory tract infections.
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